A Review of the State of Plastic Waste Recycling in India, 2025

Introduction

Plastics are perhaps the most important discovery in modern times and have transformed the way we live. The versatile nature and strength of plastics make them useful in many aspects, from regular usage such as packaging, water bottles, liquid caring packets (milk bags), carry bags, tupperware, and single use cutlery to heavy materials such as doors and windows, furnitures, plumbing products, heavy duty polystyrene packaging, insulation for wires and cables and many more. Today, every other item we use has some form of plastic in or around it.

The demand for plastics has been on the rise both globally. India has become one of the leading producers and consumers of plastic products in the world. In 2021, plastic consumption in India was approximately 21 million tons, a 23 times increase from 1990.¹ And this trend is projected to continue. According to OECD projections data, there will be a 5.5 times rise in plastic use from 2019 to 2060.⁵ 

Along with this rapid rise in usage of plastic comes the burden of plastic waste management. Recent studies have shown that India has overtaken previous top polluters like China to become the largest plastic waste polluting country in the world, with 9.3 million tons of plastic waste generated per year.² The per capita plastic waste in India is projected to increase from 14 kg per capita in 2019 to 79 kg per capita in 2060.⁵ This huge amount of plastic waste needs to be managed so that it does not end up in landfills or worse get released into the environment where it can harm marine and other wildlife and eventually end up in our food ecosystems in the form of micro plastics.

The Indian government has taken up measures to tackle the growing problem of plastic waste by introducing the Plastic Waste Management Rules (PWR), 2011 under the Environment Protection Act (EPA), 1986 and was succeeded by Plastic Waste Management Rules 2016 and and Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2018.³ In these rules the Extended Producers Responsibility (EPR) was introduced to help urban local bodies and governmental institutions by implementing a fee on plastic production. It was supplemented with the Guideline for EPR Implementation, 2022. However, further detailing of EPR is required to make producers take on more responsibility of tackling the plastic waste issue and properly implementing the guidelines.

Recycling of Plastic Waste

The US EPA defines recycling as, “The process of collecting and processing materials that would otherwise be thrown away as trash and turning them into new products.”⁶ The most prominent method of dealing with plastic waste is recycling. While reduction of plastic usage through cess charges, raising awareness about the detrimental effects of plastics and promotion of alternate materials such as paper, cardboard and natural fibers is a theoretical strategy, the already accustomed usage of plastic is difficult to replace. Furthermore, the existing plastic waste needs to be dealt with while making room for managing  future plastic waste growth, which is projected to be 41 million tons in 2033.⁴ 

With recycling some infrastructure already developed and more upcoming, it is a suitable direction for a realistic solution to the waste management issue. There is already a huge informal sector of waste management consisting of waste pickers and itinerant waste buyers who collect plastics from households, streets and collection spots who form the majority of the waste collection system in India.

Types of Plastics for Recycling

For the purposes of recycling, plastics are broadly divided into 7 categories.

1. PET (polyethylene terephthalate): This is the most common form of plastic waste in India (around 75% of the total plastic waste in India)⁹ and is widely used for the manufacture of carbonated drink bottles. Their outstanding wear resistance, low moisture retention and high durability make them ideal for storing liquids. This is one of the most widely recycled plastics around the world. In India, PET has the highest recycling rate (about 70%).⁹
2. HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene): It is a thermoplastic polymer made from petroleum which is known for its outstanding strength, resistance to impact and high melting point. HDPE is one of the easiest plastics to recycle⁷ and has a well-established system for recycling that can be integrated very easily. It is used in plastic bottles, milk jugs, food containers, corrosion-resistant pipes, recycling bins, toys, playground equipment, etc.
3. PVC (Polyvinyl chloride): It is the world’s third most widely produced synthetic plastic.⁷ It is mostly used for heavy-duty work such as underwater cable covering, wire coating, pipes, construction materials, doors and windows, etc. It is durable, lightweight and versatile with outstanding insulating properties and low permeability to water. PVC can be of two types: rigid and flexible and can be manufactured easily depending on the use. However, PVC is difficult to recycle, and the infrastructure is less developed and more costly. The best way to recycle PVC is through mechanical recycling.
4. LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene): This type of plastic is thin and more flexible. They have the simplest molecular structure of all plastics and are cheap and easy to produce. LDPE is mostly used in the production of polyethylene bags, plastic wraps, bubble wraps, dispensing bottles, etc. Collecting LDPE is the most difficult part of recycling. Due to the large volume of usage and tendency to litter, these products are difficult to collect efficiently and bring to the recycling center for recycling. Often these contain organic or other waste, making recycling much more difficult.
5. PP (Polypropylene): It is a low-density, stress-resistant thermoplastic made from propane. Its ability to melt and reform, along with resistance to deterioration under extreme temperatures, makes it ideal for injection molding. It is tough, provides good insulation and is resistant to chemicals. All this makes it so that it is perfect material for many applications such as plastic bottle caps, product packaging, fabrics, automotive parts, disposable syringes and other medical supplies, tupperware etc. Even though it is the second most manufactured plastic in the world, its recycling rate is just 3%.⁸ This is owing to the fact that recycled PP often loses chemical integrity and is weaker and less flexible than virgin PP.
6. PS (Polystyrene): Polystyrene comes in two forms: solid or foamed. It is very inexpensive and is thus widely found in use in cheap products such as disposable cups and plates, egg cartons, insulation packaging materials, etc. However, it is highly non-biodegradable and can cause the highest amount of damage to the ecology. It tends to enter the food chain and cause adverse damage to living organisms from the lowest (plankton) to the highest trophic level (predators).¹⁰ Although it can be recycled, the difficult and expensive process makes it the least recycled plastic.
7. Others: The plastic that can not be categorized among the above 6 types is listed as others. This contains polycarbonates (PC) used in sunglasses, baby bottles, CDs, etc., Acrylics used in signage, displays and containers, and mixed plastics where there are one or more combinations of plastics, which makes it difficult to recycle, such as multi-layer packaging. Recycling such plastics might release harmful chemicals such as bisphenol A. Here, reusing when possible is the best option. They are not accepted by most recycling centers and are redirected to landfills, where they pollute the environment.

Types of Plastic Recycling Processes

Based on the basic processes, recycling can be categorized into mechanical, chemical and energy recycling.¹¹ The basic steps remain the same for all three types of recycling. These include: 

• collection and segregation,
• applying one of the three types of recycling processes, and
• converting raw materials to finished products.

1. Mechanical Recycling: This is the most widely used recycling method for plastics, paper and glass. This type of recycling accepts plastic from all sources, either industrial, commercial or household and turns the residue into new material without changing its chemical nature. This facilitates the reuse/recycling of polymers, creating a closed loop. Mechanical recycling includes processes such as sorting, washing, drying, grinding, re-granulating and compounding. This method is well established for the recovery of plastics such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET).¹²
2. Chemical Recycling: This is the most complex form of recycling where the chemical structure of plastics is modified and turned back into raw materials for the production of plastics or other products. Some of the technologies used for this purpose include pyrolysis, gasification, hydro-cracking and depolymerisation.¹³ This is a relatively new tech and until recently was considered only to exist in labs rather than being a real world alternative to other forms of recycling.

   1. Pyrolysis: Pyrolysis is a process in which polymers are heated in the absence of oxygen. This results in the breakdown of polymers into a type of mixed oil. This can then be used as raw material for the manufacture of chemicals, synthetic rubber and a variety of plastics.

   2. Gasification: This process involves heating plastic polymers in the presence of oxygen and water. The end product is a mix of synthetic gases (syngas), which is mainly composed of CO and H₂ gas, which can be used in chemical industries.

   3. Hydro-cracking: This is a similar process to pyrolysis, but instead of an inert atmosphere, this process uses a catalyst and steam. This uses a lower temperature than traditional pyrolysis, and the use of hydrogen increases the quality of the output materials.

   4. Depolymerisation: This process breaks down the polymers into monomers using different combinations of chemistry, solvents and heat. It outputs a starting material that can be used directly for the production of new plastic instead of gas or oil.¹⁴

3. Energy Recycling: This is the process by which plastic waste is converted to energy, either thermal or electrical. Pyrolysis can be used to turn plastic waste into synthetic oil which can then be used as fuel as an alternative to fossil fuels such as diesel and petrol.¹⁵ Incineration is another process where burning of waste generates thermal energy that in turn can be used to produce electricity. With proper care taken, such as catalyzers in waste incineration plants, carbon and other pollution emissions can be controlled. Though this process has potential it is not that widely used. Incinerators that are used cause concern over their emission and pollution standards.

Issues with Plastic Waste Recycling

While India has developed quite a bit of infrastructure and implemented programmes to recycle plastic waste, it is still lagging behind the global trends. Although often reported to have a 60-70% recycling rate, studies have found that the actual rate at which plastics are reintroduced into the circular economy in India was 8% in 2019.¹⁶ This indicates gaps in effective plastic waste management and recycling. The major issues in this regard include:

Inadequate infrastructure

There is a distinct lack of infrastructure to manage the recycling of plastic waste in India. According to CPCB reports ²⁰ 5939 registered and 615 unregistered plastic manufacturing/recycling units in India. In an Indian government press release ²¹ the recycling rate in India was stated to be 60%. However, further studies have estimated the actual rate to be close to 8%.¹⁶ This shows a lack of infrastructure and a gap in data around the actual scenario regarding the recycling of plastic waste. On top of that, most of the rural scenario is underrepresented in the data, as most villages in India do not have any infrastructure to deal with plastic waste.

There is a massive dependency on the informal sector for waste management in India. Waste pickers and itinerant waste collectors form a massive workforce that helps deal with waste collection and segregation. However, the unregulated nature of the sector poses a major barrier to the orderly implementation of guidelines.¹⁶

Gaps in laws and regulations

The plastic waste management rules and their various amendments over the years have set up a framework for effective plastic waste management in India. Initiatives such as banning single-use plastics ²² and EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility) have been brought forward, but enforcement on a nationwide scale requires a massive effort, which is yet to be properly set forth. Integration of the informal sectors, infrastructure capacity constraints, financial challenges and false recycling certificates ^23,24 are some of the gaps in the implementation of EPR in India.

There have been some successful models, such as one by the state of Goa that included measures such as tie-ups with local dairies for paying residents on return of washed plastic milk bags and tie-ups with tetra pack companies for buybacks of empty packs.³

Single-use plastics

Single use plastic is one of the most plaguing issues of plastic waste management in India. According to the Plastic Waste Makers Index 2019, India was the 13th largest investor in single-use plastic production and contributed 5.5 million tons of single-use plastic waste globally.¹⁷ As these are designed to be used only once, they are discarded after use, often in an uncontrolled way. This results in littering, clogging of drains and plastic pollution in natural environments, particularly in the oceans. Plastic pollution in marine life is a widespread problem that has garnered attention from pollution activists around the globe, as approximately 36 billion pounds of plastic enter the ocean every year.¹⁸

The Indian government has banned 19 single-use plastic items since July 2022.²² However, implementation of the ban remains a challenge, especially for small-scale manufacturers and vendors who have grown accustomed to the usage and require massive upheaval for enacting real change. These plastics accumulate in landfills where they release toxins that can insert themselves in our food chains and water bodies.³

Hard to recycle plastics

Hard to recycle plastics such as polycarbonates, multi-layer packaging, polystyrene, PVC, etc, form a major roadblock to recycling. Often, they are not accepted at recycling plants as they prove to be difficult and expensive to recycle. While theoretical processes are available for recycling such plastics they are not practical and can result in aggregation of plastic waste in landfills with no way to take them out of the environment. These often release toxins such as phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA), which lead to diseases and health problems, such as male reproductive dysfunction, breast growth, and testicular cancers.³ Multilayer plastics are more difficult as they are formed of several different types of plastics that require different recycling processes.

Collection and Segregation Issue

Collection and segregation are the first steps of the recycling process. In India a massive informal sector deals with the bulk of both collecting and segregating plastic waste. Between 1.5 to 4 million informal workers work in these sectors. They recover around 20% of recyclable plastic waste in some cities.²⁵ The unregulated nature of this sector reduces the efficiency and effectiveness of the collection and segregation of plastic waste.¹⁶ Segregation is particularly important as not all plastic can be recycled together, and based on the category, they require different recycling methods. The lack of automation in segregation also affects the capacity of plastic available for recycling. 

Landfilling and Open burning of plastics

According to plasticsforchange.org, around 77% of the waste generated in Indian cities is dumped into open landfills without being treated.¹⁹ This trend is especially true for rural India, where dumping waste in landfills is a common way to get rid of waste. The other preferred method to get rid of plastics is burning them either at landfills or in local collection centers. This releases a huge amount of toxic pollutants and microplastics that reduce the air quality and cause several harmful diseases.²⁶

Indiscriminate littering affects the plastic collection ability, as most plastics in India do not even make it to the recycling plants. They end up clogging drains, gutters and rainwater vents, creating flood-like scenarios even for sparse rains.³

Lack of awareness and behavioural inadequacies

Another crucial barrier is a lack of awareness among primary waste generators about the importance of plastic waste management. There is a lack of knowledge and incentive about the importance of waste segregation and plastic recycling among households, thus leaving the biggest waste generators out of the loop of the collective effort. There is also a gap in knowledge amongst the end user about the environmental impacts of plastics and alternatives available for them.¹⁶

Behavioral changes need to be made via awareness campaigns, and recycled products need to be made mainstream and presented as suitable alternatives to reduce the demand for virgin plastics. Real incentives have to be provided to producers and retailers of plastic so that the shift towards using recycled plastics can occur organically, based on market forces.

Conclusion

There is a global lag in recycling of plastic waste which results in accumulation of plastic pollutants in our environment, especially in our rivers, oceans and other water bodies. However, in the Indian context, this problem is huge and growing at a fast pace. With the highest population and increasing demand for plastics, the plastic waste problem needs to be dealt with with a systematic, collaborative and multifaceted approach. While India boasts a 90% recycling rate when it comes to PET²⁷, other plastics such as multi-layer, PVC, PP, PC, etc, have far less and are often not recycled at all. PET holds the largest share of recyclable plastics, and demand for recycled HDPE is on the rise. Most recycling in India is done via mechanical recycling.²⁸ So investment in chemical and energy recycling will open more options to recycle different types of plastics with different end products which can satisfy a variety of industrial and retail consumer needs.

There is a need to invest in technology for large-scale sorting operations and consequent recycling based on the best practices for different categories of plastics. Also, India needs to lead the world by adopting alternative plastic waste management techniques, which will tackle the burgeoning waste problem. These techniques will require funding and initiative to be transformed from theoretical concepts in labs to real-world factory lines that operate on sustainable business models. For this, awareness about plastic waste pollution and real-world incentives for better plastic waste management is vital in the present scenario.

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